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SCED 392: Research, Theory and Practice in Middle and High School Science Education
Fall, 2011
I. INSTRUCTOR
Paul J. Bischoff
Office: Human Ecology-224
Phone: 436-2613
e-mail: bischopj@oneonta.edu
Department Policy states that a grade of B- or better is required in this course to be eligible for student teaching. Attendance Policy-Students are expected to attend and participate in each class. Missing 2-classes for any reason will result in a grade reduction of one full letter grade. Each absence beyond 2 will also result in a full-letter grade reduction.
Science Education majors take SCED 392 one or two semesters before student teaching. All topics covered in the course are further supported and extended by 50-hours of field experience in science classrooms under the guidance of cooperating teachers and the course instructor. Participants are required to plan, teach and reflect on ten lessons during the 50-hr field experience. Research articles and professional literature are read and discussed as a means of broadening the topics studied. The course begins with a unit of study on Safety. This is followed by Constructivism and Cognitive Science so the participants gain an understanding of what takes place in a learner's mind when they "learn" science. Thereafter the course focuses on major issues including Science Technology and Society, Inquiry, and the Nature of Science. Additional topics studied include the development and application of assessment measures, and modifying instruction to meet the needs of all learners.
The goal of this course, to help prepare pre-service middle school and secondary science teachers for the world of classroom teaching, reflects the expectations of the National Science Education Standards, the National Science Teachers Associations’ Standards for Science Teacher preparation and the New York State Learning Standards for Mathematics, Science and Technology. Recognizing the national need for qualified science teachers and the current reform initiatives in secondary science education, this course will emphasize the development of participants’ pedagogical-content knowledge such that they will be capable of successfully facilitating the construction of scientific knowledge to all students in today’s diverse classrooms. In this course students explore conceptions about learners, learning, teaching, science, schooling and assessment, and especially the connections among all of these. Current epistemology, described as constructivist views of learning and the nature of science knowledge, is explored in depth. Personal conceptions are also explored in depth.
The NSTA Performance Standards Addressed by this course are:
1. Content. Teachers of science understand and can articulate the knowledge and practices of contemporary science. They can interrelate and interpret important concepts, ideas, and applications in their fields of licensure; and can conduct scientific investigations. To show that they are prepared in content, teachers of science must demonstrate that they (a) understand and can successfully convey to students the major concepts, principles, theories, laws, and interrelationships of their fields of licensure and supporting fields as recommended by the National Science Teachers Association; (b) understand and can successfully convey to students the unifying concepts of science delineated by the National Science Education Standards; (c) understand and can successfully convey to students important personal and technological applications of science in their fields of licensure.
2. Nature of Science. Teachers of science engage students effectively in studies of the history, philosophy, and practice of science. They enable students to distinguish science from nonscience, understand the evolution and practice of science as a human endeavor, and critically analyze assertions made in the name of science. To show they are prepared to teach the nature of science, teachers of science must demonstrate that they (a) understand the historical and cultural development of science and the evolution of knowledge in their discipline; (b) understand the philosophical tenets, assumptions, goals, and values that distinguish science from technology and from other ways of knowing the world; and (c) engage students successfully in studies of the nature of science including, when possible, the critical analysis of false or doubtful assertions made in the name of science.
3. Inquiry. Teachers of science engage students both in studies of
various methods of scientific inquiry and in active learning through scientific
inquiry. They encourage students, individually and collaboratively, to observe,
ask questions, design inquiries, and collect and interpret data in order to
develop concepts and relationships from empirical experiences. To show that they
are prepared to teach through inquiry, teachers of science must demonstrate that
they (a) understand the processes, tenets, and assumptions of multiple methods
of inquiry leading to scientific knowledge; and (b) engage students successfully
in developmentally appropriate inquiries that require them to develop concepts
and relationships from their observations, data, and inferences in a scientific
manner.
4. Issues. Teachers of science recognize that informed citizens must be
prepared to make decisions and take action on contemporary science- and
technology-related issues of interest to the general society. They require
students to conduct inquiries into the factual basis of such issues and to
assess possible actions and outcomes based upon their goals and values. To show
that they are prepared to engage students in studies of issues related to
science, teachers of science must demonstrate that they (a) understand socially
important issues related to science and technology in their field of licensure,
as well as processes used to analyze and make decisions on such issues; and (b)
engage students successfully in the analysis of problems, including
considerations of risks, costs, and benefits of alternative solutions; relating
these to the knowledge, goals and values of the students.
5. General Skills of Teaching. Teachers of science create a community of
diverse learners who construct meaning from their science experiences and
possess a disposition for further exploration and learning. They use, and can
justify, a variety of classroom arrangements, groupings, actions, strategies,
and methodologies. To show that they are prepared to create a community of
diverse learners, teachers of science must demonstrate that they (a) vary their
teaching actions, strategies, and methods to promote the development of multiple
student skills and levels of understanding;
(b) successfully promote the learning of science by students with different
abilities, needs, interests, and backgrounds; (c) successfully organize and
engage students in collaborative learning using different student group learning
strategies; (d) successfully use technological tools, including but not limited
to computer technology, to access resources, collect and process data, and
facilitate the learning of science; (e) understand and build effectively upon
the prior beliefs, knowledge, experiences, and interests of students; and (f)
create and maintain a psychologically and socially safe and supportive learning
environment. (optional to address this standard in the NSTA report)
6. Curriculum. Teachers of science plan and implement an active,
coherent, and effective curriculum that is consistent with the goals and
recommendations of the National Science Education Standards. They begin with the
end in mind and effectively incorporate contemporary practices and resources
into their planning and teaching. To show that they are prepared to plan and
implement an effective science curriculum, teachers of science must demonstrate
that they (a) understand the curricular recommendations of the National Science
Education Standards, and can identify, access, and/or create resources and
activities for science education that are consistent with the standards; and (b)
plan and implement internally consistent units of study that address the diverse
goals of the National Science Education Standards and the needs and abilities of
students.
7. Science in the Community. Teachers of science relate their discipline
to their local and regional communities, involving stakeholders and using the
individual, institutional, and natural resources of the community in their
teaching. They actively engage students in science-related studies or activities
related to locally important issues. To show that they are prepared to relate
science to the community, teachers of science must demonstrate that they (a)
identify ways to relate science to the community, involve stakeholders, and use
community resources to promote the learning of science; and (b) involve students
successfully in activities that relate science to resources and stakeholders in
the community or to the resolution of issues important to the community.
8. Assessment. Teachers of science construct and use effective assessment
strategies to determine the backgrounds and achievements of learners and
facilitate their intellectual, social, and personal development. They assess
students fairly and equitably, and require that students engage in ongoing
self-assessment. To show that they are prepared to use assessment effectively,
teachers of science must demonstrate that they (a) use multiple assessment tools
and strategies to achieve important goals for instruction that are aligned with
methods of instruction and the needs of students;
(b) use the results of multiple assessments to guide and modify instruction, the
classroom environment, or the assessment process; and (c) use the results of
assessments as vehicles for students to analyze their own learning, engaging
students in reflective self-analysis of their own work.
9. Safety and Welfare. Teachers of science organize safe and effective
learning environments that promote the success of students and the welfare of
all living things. They require and promote knowledge and respect for safety,
and oversee the welfare of all living things used in the classroom or found in
the field. To show that they are prepared, teachers of science must demonstrate
that they (a) understand the legal and ethical responsibilities of science
teachers for the welfare of their students, the proper treatment of animals, and
the maintenance and disposal of materials; (b) know and practice safe and proper
techniques for the preparation, storage, dispensing, supervision, and disposal
of all materials used in science instruction;
(c) know and follow emergency procedures, maintain safety equipment, and ensure
safety procedures appropriate for the activities and the abilities of students;
and (d) treat all living organisms used in the classroom or found in the field
in a safe, humane, and ethical manner and respect legal restrictions on their
collection, keeping, and use.
IV. Reading Schedule: Please read the following before class so you can actively participate.
| Date | Reading |
| 9/7 | Chapter 4-Safety |
| 9/14 | Bodner-Constructivism, A Theory of Knowledge |
| 9/21 | Willingham: Why Students Think they Understand and How to Help Students See When Their Knowledge is Superficial. |
| 9/28 | Willingham: Do Visual, Auditory and Kinesthenti... |
| 10/5 | Willingham: Understanding ADHD |
| 10/19 | Willingham: Why Students Don't Like School
http://www.aft.org/pdfs/americaneducator/spring2009/WILLINGHAM(2).pdf |
| 10/26 | Bischoff & Feldt Golden-Triangle Fraction Task |
| 11/2 | Effects of Cooperative Learning on Earth Science Achievement |
| 11/9 | Bischoff-Knowledge Structure Analysis and Redox Chemistry |
a. Traditional Experiences: lecture/discussion, demonstrations, and written assignments.
b. Clinical Experiences: cooperative groups, student demonstrations and or
presentations.
c. Field Experience: field teaching, classroom observations.
Summary of Graded Class Assignments. Please assemble and organize the assignments in a spiral note book sequentially.
Grade Determination: Tasks outlined in Boxes 1-7 are scored as follows:
| Exceptional: creative, little to no room for improvement, beyond expectations. | 95-100 | A |
| Excellent: meets all requirements | 90-94 | A- |
| Very Good: some areas could be strengthened | 85-89 | B+ |
| Good some areas should be strengthened | 80-84 | B |
| Acceptable some areas need to be strengthened | 75-79 | B- |
| Not Acceptable poorly done | < 74 | C+ |
| NSTA STANDARD | Description of Class Requirements. You need a 3-ring binder. Develop a hard copy portfolio where the first item is Block 1 and continuing through. Submit the work on or before the due date. I will grade the work and you can then put it back into your developing portfolio. . |
Grading | Due Dates Grade Point Values |
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| Block 1 Safety and Welfare |
Safety Module at end of syllabus |
100 points | Due, 9/20 or 9/22
|
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| Block 2 Nature of Science (a) understand the historical and cultural development of science and the evolution of knowledge in their discipline; (b) understand the philosophical tenets, assumptions, goals, and values that distinguish science from technology and from other ways of knowing the world; and (c) engage students successfully in studies of the nature of science including, when possible, the critical analysis of false or doubtful assertions made in the name of science.
|
a. Read and write a two-page
response to three selected chapters from Science for All Americans available
online at
http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/sfaatoc.htm. Chapter
1-the Nature of Science is required, but you may choose 2 others. Focus your
response on how you can apply what you have read and learned to science
teaching.
b. Construct a semantic network model outlining the main features of the Nature of Science as shown in part b left. Include a bibliography of three citations used in helping you create your model. Be prepared to share and discuss your model with classmates. c. Teach 2-3 NOS focused lessons. Be sure to clearly identify why these lessons are NOS. There should be at least one NOS specific objective. Include a reflective narrative. How could you modify the lesson to increase the focus on NOS? Follow the lesson plan format provided for all lessons developed in this course. |
a and b = 100 points
c = 100 points |
Parts a and b due October 4th or 6th. Lessons plans and reflections are due as completed during your field experience. |
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| Block 3 Inquiry (a) understand the processes, tenets, and assumptions of multiple methods of inquiry leading to scientific knowledge; and (b) engage students successfully in developmentally appropriate inquiries that require them to develop concepts and relationships from their observations, data, and inferences in a scientific manner. |
a. Read and participate in a
classroom discussion on the NSTA Position Statement regarding Inquiry and
Science Teaching and Learning available online at
http://www.nsta.org/about/positions/inquiry.aspx. An outcome of the
activity will be a list of features to look for in science classrooms where
inquiry teaching is highly valued. Discuss the list with your cooperating
teacher, and then observe three science lessons specifically looking for
examples where the features from the list were applied. Share and discuss
your findings with your cooperating teacher and with the methods class.
Submit a two column Table and summary paragraph on your findings.
(b). Teach 2-3 inquiry focused lesson plans. Include a reflective narrative. Be sure to clearly identify why this lesson is Inquiry. What are the special inquiry features, how could you modify the lesson to increase the focus on inquiry? Have at least one inquiry specific learning objective. |
a = 100 points b = 100 points |
Part a due October 18th or 20th. Lessons plans and reflections are due as completed during your field experience. |
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Block 4 Issues (a) understand socially important issues related to science and technology in their field of licensure, as well as processes used to analyze and make decisions on such issues; and (b) engage students successfully in the analysis of problems, including considerations of risks, costs, and benefits of alternative solutions; relating these to the knowledge, goals and values of the students. |
(a). Review the New York State
Science Curriculum in your field and identify three contemporary science and
or technology related areas of interest to the general society. Under
each area identify 5 resources useful in engaging students in studies of the
topic. For each resource identify the Title, Author, why you selected it,
and how it may be used in science teaching. Any form of media may be used
including newspaper and magazine articles, videos, and websites. (b). Plan, teach and reflect on 2-3 lessons that specifically engage students in contemporary socially important science topics. |
a = 100 points b = 100 points |
Part a due October 25 or 27. Lessons plans and reflections are due as completed during your field experience. |
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| Block 5 Science in the Community. (a) identify ways to relate science to the community, involve stakeholders, and use community resources to promote the learning of science; and (b) involve students successfully in activities that relate science to resources and stakeholders in the community or to the resolution of issues important to the community. |
(a). Following a class discussion
on Science in the Community where a preliminary list of ways to relate
science to the community is developed, students are asked record and report
on ways this occurs during the 50-hr field experience. Additionally,
candidates are required to interview 2-science teachers in effort to
identify additional ways of connecting science to the community. Submitted
is a final list of at least ten ways and accompanying resources to relate science to
the community. (b) Plan, teach and reflect on 2-3 lessons that involve students successfully in activities that relate science to resources and stakeholders in the community or to the resolution of issues important to the community. |
a = 100 points b = 100 points |
Part a due November 1st or 3rd. Lessons plans and reflections are due as completed during your field experience. |
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| Block 6
Assessment.
(a) use multiple assessment tools and strategies to achieve important
goals for instruction that are aligned with methods of instruction and the
needs of students; |
Assessment Task Task 1: Some science learning outcomes can be measured with tests and laboratory reports. Other science skills, like the ability to communicate, ability to design a study to test a hypothesis, ability to collect and analyze data, and the ability to modify personal thinking based on empirical evidence are more difficult to assess. Your first task is to create a rubric useful in measuring some of these "hard to get at" but important learning outcomes.
Choose 2 student in the class you are visiting as focus students. The chosen students should have different ability levels. Observe the students for 3 lessons and score the students on the rubric you have made. So you should have 3 rubrics scored for each student. Do this during the first few weeks of the field experience.
Task 2: Teach the lessons that are required for this course. While you are planning these lessons and teaching, remember what you learned from the pre-assessment rubric and work towards improving the student's performance. Task 3: Reapply the same rubrics to the same students during one more observation. In writing describe what learning appeared to occur of not occur and describe why you believe this to be so. |
100 points | Due November 29th or Dec 1st. |
Another major assessment in this course (200 points) is the Science Specific Unit Plan. Details are at the end of the syllabus. Due October 25th or 27th.
Field Experience
Students will be scheduled to complete science education field experience in local schools on a regular basis. Students who do not completely fulfill the field requirements are at serious risk of failing the course. Furthermore, you may fail the course if the report from the cooperating teacher raises serious concerns about your professionalism.
Requirements Are:
SAFETY MODULE
State University of New York-College at Oneonta
All candidates in the Adolescence Science Education Program are required to satisfactorily complete all 3-parts of this safety module.
The NSTA Standard for Science Education is as follows:
Standard 9. Safety and Welfare.
Teachers of science organize safe and effective learning environments that
promote the success of students and the welfare of all living things. They
require and promote knowledge and respect for safety, and oversee the welfare of
all living things used in the classroom or found in the field. To show that
they are prepared, teachers of science must demonstrate that they (a)
understand the legal and ethical responsibilities of science teachers for the
welfare of their students, the proper treatment of animals, and the maintenance
and disposal of materials; (b) know and practice safe and proper
techniques for the preparation, storage, dispensing, supervision, and disposal
of all materials used in science instruction;
(c) know and follow emergency procedures, maintain safety equipment, and
ensure safety procedures appropriate for the activities and the abilities of
students; and (d) treat all living organisms used in the classroom or found in
the field in a safe, humane, and ethical manner and respect legal restrictions
on their collection, keeping, and use.
Part 1 is a series of Methods Class Activities including:
Part 1 Details:
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Topics Covered in the Test following the Methods Class Jig Saw Activity |
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Importance of Start of Term Laboratory Safety Inspection |
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Material Safety Data Sheets and Information |
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Procedures to be followed following an injury or accident |
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Procedures regarding specific written and oral safety on individual lab handouts |
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Meaning of Safety Symbols used in Laboratory Manuals |
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Safe Laboratory Management Procedures |
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Procedures for Safe Laboratory Demonstrations-distance from demo desk and safety shields. |
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Fire Extinguishers and how to deal electrical and chemical fires. |
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Fire Blanket, Eye Wash Station and Emergency Shower Use |
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Preventing contamination from Human Body Fluids: Balloons and Straws (10% bleach or discard), Cheek Cell, blood typing and DNA labs. |
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Safety procedures when using heat, light and Incandescent lamps and Electricity |
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General Chemical Safety including: storage, ventilation, use of Fume Hoods, Acids and Bases, chemical labels, Hazardous Waste Management |
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Safe Equipment and Supply Storage |
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Procedures for use of living organisms in the classroom including: safe, humane and ethical treatment and legal restrictions regarding the collection, keeping and use of specimens found in the field.
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b. Candidates apply the content of the “New York State Science Safety Manual K-12” in an “Inspection of the Science Education Laboratory”.
Safety Module: Part 1. Section B. Inspection of the Science Education Laboratory
Directions: Conduct a Safety Inspection of the Science Education Laboratory. Use the table below to record the results of your inspection.
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Inspected |
Status/Observations |
Action Needed |
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Fume Hood |
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Fire Blanket |
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Eye Wash Station |
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Emergency Shower |
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Emergency Exit Window |
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Electrical Outlets |
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Gas Supply |
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Eye Goggle Storage |
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Chemical Storage |
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Fire Extinguisher |
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Safety Posters |
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Emergency Exit |
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General Storage of Supplies |
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General Safety including ventilation, lighting, clear floor, and clutter. |
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Candidates demonstrate particular safety skills including: preparing molar solutions and properly labeling 3 chemical storage containers; inserting and removing glass tubing from rubber stoppers and proper use of Bunsen burners.
Part 1, Section C. Recording of candidate’s skills of: preparing molar solutions and properly labeling 3 chemical storage containers; inserting and removing glass tubing from rubber stoppers and proper use of Bunsen burners.
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Task |
Performance (Unacceptable or Acceptable) |
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Preparing molar solutions and properly labeling 3 chemical storage containers |
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Inserting and removing glass tubing from rubber stoppers |
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Proper use of Bunsen burners |
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.
Science Safety Module: Part 2 Candidates prepare Science Safety Unit Plan. It is important that you explicitly teach safety and assess students understanding of safety issues. At the same time, safety is not likely to be an area of high intuitive interest by students. The rubric below indentifies topics that should be covered in a Science Safety Unit. Your task is to develop a series of lessons that effectively and creatively teach each of the main points below.
Follow the Standard Lesson Plan Format in the Preparation of your lessons.
Rubric used to score Science Safety Unit Plan: Not Acceptable: no evidence of instruction in lesson plans; Acceptable: evidence in instruction but not creative or particularly engaging; Excellent: student centered and creative lesson plans.
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Topics Taught |
Not Acceptable (1) |
Acceptable (2) |
Excellent (3) |
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Safe Behavior and Safety Contracts |
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Chemical Safety |
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Procedures in Emergencies (fires, spills, broken glass, etc) |
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Safety Equipment Use (fire extinguishers, blankets, eye wash and shower stations |
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Class trips |
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Ethical/humane treatment of organisms |
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Bringing in animals, plants or chemicals from home |
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Safety Test or Quiz |
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Professors Score of Unit and Signature |
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Science Safety Module: Part 3: Laboratory Safety Analysis in a Cooperating Teacher’s Laboratory/Science room.
Task Described: Your task is to conduct a management and safety assessment of the science classroom and labs in which you are participating.
Conduct the safety assessment with the support and assistance of your cooperating teacher and other qualified school science personnel. Use the table below to guide your management and safety assessment.
Submit the work as 1 package starting with item number 1 and continuing through item number 7.
Assessment Rubric: A satisfactory performance on all items, 1-7 is required.
|
Item Number |
Items and Issues to Address on Management and Safety Assessment |
Specifics of the Candidates Assignment |
Satisfactory: It is mandatory that you earn a satisfactory rating on each item 1-7.
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Exceptional
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1 |
Evacuation Plan: Conduct a semi-structured interview with the cooperating teacher and 2 students. |
The purpose is to identify the evacuation plan and/or protocols that science teachers and student follow. What happens if the fire drill goes off during lab? Are exits clearly marked and routes established? Is there a central gathering point so roll can be called? What plans are in place for disabled students (wheelchair bound)? |
Interview questions are prepared in advance. Outcome is transcribed so that the questions and response are clearly delineated. The major outcomes of each interview are summarized. You have shared the results with your cooperating teacher and discussed ways to improve the evacuation plan if necessary. |
You have extended the requirements. For example: you have observed evacuations and taken notes on what is working and used these notes to make recommendations on how to improve the evacuation plan. |
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2 |
Class Size |
Safety and fire codes limit the numbers of students allowed in classes. Check to see if class size maximums are posted and followed. Discuss class size and management of students in labs with the cooperating teacher. Report the results of your investigation. |
You have interviewed the cooperating teacher concerning class size and management of students, particularly during lab. In support of your interview, you have observed the class during lab. You have noted ways of better facilitating the class, especially during lab to further safety. You have communicated the results of your interview and observation/investigation. |
You have actually changed the structure of lab activities and seating arrangements for improved safety.
Student seating has been arranged so that Safety facilities (fire blankets, eye wash stations, showers) are accessible to all. |
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3 |
Safety Goggles-Legal and Practical Issues: Safety Goggles—corrosive gases of fumes, corrosive liquids, hot liquids, sharp objects, small particles, fire and heat
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Review and summarize the laws pertaining to the use of safety goggles in science classrooms. Once completed, discuss the safety goggle policies and procedures of your cooperating teacher’s classroom. In writing, describe the outcomes of your research and interview. |
Safety goggle policies are part of a safety contract. There are rules and consequences in place for safety goggles. Safety goggle posters are posted. Issues pertaining to contact lenses have been addressed. |
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4 |
Safety Posters |
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Visit at least 3 science classes in your host school and document the occurrence or absence of safety posters. Describe the types of posters found (student made, teacher made, purchased and what are they about). |
You have made or have had students make safety posters and placed them in conspicuous places. Or, you have communicated your findings about the placement of safety posters to your cooperating teacher. |
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5 |
Fume Hood |
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Most commonly used in chemistry laboratories and somewhat in biology laboratories. Observe the fume hood and describe its state of readiness and safety. |
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6 |
Lighting |
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Inspect the class, lab and storage areas for adequate lighting. Report your findings and recommendations to your cooperating teacher and as part of this report. |
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7 |
Storage and Labeling of Items and Chemicals |
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You have discussed the proper storage of chemical with your cooperating teacher and/or others involved. Accompanied by your cooperating teacher you have evaluated the science chemical storage areas in your school. How are the chemical stored? Acids and corrosive chemicals; oxidizers, flammable chemicals. What organizational system is in place? What is the system for disposal of chemicals? You have submitted a written evaluation to your cooperating teacher and included it in this report. |
Beyond the satisfactory requirements, you have reviewed the schools policies for receiving chemicals and for disposal of chemicals. You have reviewed the emergency plans for chemical spills. You have identified conducted related research into chemical safety and acted on the findings of that research. |
Class Participation Rubric: In addition to the submitted and formally graded assignments you will be scored on your readiness to participate in class and readiness to be a science teacher. You will be graded twice for 200 points.
| Assessed | Poor <84 | Acceptable 85-94 | Excellent 95-100 |
| Readiness to Participate | |||
| Readiness to be a Science Teacher |
Grades based on % of 1600 points.
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95-100 |
A |
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90-94.9 |
A- |
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87-89.9 |
B+ |
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84-86.9 |
B |
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80-83.9 |
B- |
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77-77.9 |
C+ |
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74-76.9 |
C |
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70-73.9 |
C-
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65-69.9 |
D |
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65 |
E |
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
References for Further Reading
American Association for the Advancement of Science: Project 2061. Science for All Americans. 1990. New York, N.Y. Oxford University Press.
Bereiter, C., and M. Scardamalia. 1989. Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. In Knowing, Learning, and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser, L.B. Resnick, ed.: 361-392. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.
Brown, A. 1994.The advancement of learning. Presidential Address, American Educational Research Association. Educational Researcher, 23: 4-12.
Brown, A.L., and J.C. Campione. 1994. Guided discovery in a community of learners. In Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice, K. McGilly, ed.: 229-270. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bruer, J.T. 1993. Schools for Thought: A Science of Learning in the Classroom. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Carey, S. 1985. Conceptual Change in Childhood. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Carey, S., and R. Gelman, eds. 1991. The Epigenesis of Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.
Champagne, A.B. 1988. Science Teaching: Making the System Work. In This Year in School Science 1988: Papers from the Forum for School Science. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Cohen, D.K., M.W. McLaughlin, and J.E. Talbert, eds. 1993. Teaching for Understanding: Challenges for Policy and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Darling-Hammond, L. 1992. Standards of Practice for Learner Centered Schools. New York: National Center for Restructuring Schools and Learning.
Harlen, W. 1992. The Teaching of Science. London: David Fulton Publishers.
Hassard, J. 1992. Minds on Science: Middle and Secondary School Methods. New York, N.Y: Harper Collins Publishers.
Leinhardt, G. 1993. On Teaching. In Advances in Instructional Psychology, R. Glaser ed., vol.4: 1-54. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.
Loucks-Horsley, S., J.G. Brooks, M.O. Carlson, P. Kuerbis, D.P. Marsh, M. Padilla, H. Pratt, and K.L. Smith. 1990. Developing and Supporting Teachers for Science Education in the Middle Years. Andover, MA: The National Center for Improving Science Education.
Loucks-Horsley, S., M.O. Carlson, L.H. Brink, P. Horwitz, D.P. Marsh, H. Pratt, K.R. Roy, and K. Worth. 1989. Developing and Supporting Teachers for Elementary School Science Education. Andover, MA: The National Center for Improving Science Education.
McGilly, K., ed. 1994. Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
NBPTS (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards). 1991. Toward High and Rigorous Standards for the Teaching Profession: Initial Policies and Perspectives of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 3rd ed. Detroit, MI: NBPTS.
NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics). 1991. Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.
NRC (National Research Council). 1994. Learning, Remembering, Believing: Enhancing Human Performance, D. Druckman and R.A. Bjork, eds. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
NRC (National Research Council). 1990. Fulfilling the Promise: Biology Education in the Nation's Schools. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
NRC (National Research Council). 1987. Education and Learning to Think, L.B. Resnick, ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Schoen, D. 1987. Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Shulman, L.S. 1987. Knowledge and teaching foundations of the new reform. Harvard Education Review, 57 (1): 1-22
Important Web Sites:
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/overview.html
http://www.msu.edu/~haasdona/NSTA_AETS.htm#
Map of NSTA Standards for Science Teacher Education
http://content.tier.net/stanys/Curricula/stanys_curriculum_development.htm
http://www.regentsprep.org/Regents/biology/biology-about.htm
http://www.nysl.nysed.gov/edocs/education/exams/biology.htm